Selection of Data Sources
Last updated on Oct 16, 2025
Nutritional Biochemistry
Sacks, Frank M., et al. “Comparison of Weight-Loss Diets with Different Compositions of Fat, Protein, and Carbohydrates.” New England Journal of Medicine 360, no. 9 (2009): 859–873. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0804748
Neumark-Sztainer, Dianne, Ruth Butler, and Hava Palti. “Dieting and Binge Eating: Which Dieters Are at Risk?” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 95, no. 5 (May 1995): 586–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(95)00160-3
Estruch, Ramón, Emilio Ros, Jordi Salas-Salvadó, M. Isabel Covas, Dolores Corella, Fernando Arós, Enrique Gómez-Gracia, et al. “Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts.” New England Journal of Medicine 378, no. 25 (2018): e34. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1800389.
Putra, C., Konow, N., Gage, M., York, C. G., and Mangano, K. M. “Protein Source and Muscle Health in Older Adults: A Literature Review.” Nutrients 13, no. 3 (2021): 743. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030743.
Goes-Santos, B. R., Carson, B. P., da Fonseca, G. W. P., and von Haehling, S. “Nutritional Strategies for Improving Sarcopenia Outcomes in Older Adults: A Narrative Review.” Pharmacology Research & Perspectives 12, no. 5 (2024): e70019. https://doi.org/10.1002/prp2.70019.
Solan, Matthew. “Boosting Share of Protein from Plants in Diet May Lower Heart Disease Risk.” Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard Medical School, March 1, 2025.
French, Sean, Liu Mei, and Amanda S. Grant. “Reevaluating Protein Intake: Risks at the Upper Threshold.” Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry and Aging 12, no. 1 (2025): 45–53.
Morgan, Paul T., Oliver C. Witard, Grith Højfeldt, David D. Church, and Leigh Breen. “Dietary Protein Recommendations to Support Healthy Muscle Ageing in the 21st Century and Beyond: Considerations and Future Directions.” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society (2023). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665123003750.
Nishimura, Yusuke, Grith Højfeldt, Leigh Breen, Inge Tetens, and Lars Holm. “Dietary Protein Requirements and Recommendations for Healthy Older Adults: A Critical Narrative Review of the Scientific Evidence.” Nutrition Research Reviews 36 (2023): 69–85. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422421000329.
Skerrett, P. J., and W. C. Willett. “Essentials of Healthy Eating: A Guide.” Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health 55, no. 6 (2010): 492–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmwh.2010.06.019.
Astrup, A., N. Teicholz, F. Magkos, D. M. Bier, J. T. Brenna, J. C. King, et al. “Dietary Saturated Fats and Health: Are the U.S. Guidelines Evidence-Based?” Nutrients 13, no. 10 (2021): 3305. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13103305.
de Souza, R. J., A. Mente, A. Maroleanu, A. I. Cozma, V. Ha, T. Kishibe, et al. “Intake of Saturated and Trans Unsaturated Fatty Acids and Risk of All Cause Mortality, Cardiovascular Disease, and Type 2 Diabetes: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.” BMJ 351 (2015): h3978. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h3978.
Wang, X., Y. Ouyang, J. Liu, M. Zhu, G. Zhao, W. Bao, and Frank B. Hu. “Fruit and Vegetable Consumption and Mortality from All Causes, Cardiovascular Disease, and Cancer: Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies.” BMJ 349 (2014): g4490. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g4490.
Seidelmann, S. B., B. Claggett, S. Cheng, M. Henglin, A. Shah, L. M. Steffen, et al. “Dietary Carbohydrate Intake and Mortality: A Prospective Cohort Study and Meta-Analysis.” The Lancet Public Health 3, no. 9 (2018): e419–e428. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30135-X.
American Heart Association. “Carbohydrates.” Viewed July 27, 2025. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/carbohydrates.
Blaak, Ellen E., Gabriele Riccardi, and Leslie Cho. “Carbohydrates: Separating Fact from Fiction.” Atherosclerosis328 (2021): 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2021.03.025.
Mozaffarian, Dariush, S. Fahimi, G. M. Singh, R. Micha, S. Khatibzadeh, R. E. Engell, et al. “Global Sodium Consumption and Death from Cardiovascular Causes.” New England Journal of Medicine 371, no. 7 (2014): 624–634. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1304127.
Lee, Y. J., M. Lee, Y. M. Wi, et al. “Potassium Intake, Skeletal Muscle Mass, and Effect Modification by Sex: Data from the 2008–2011 KNHANES.” Nutrition Journal 19 (2020): 93. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-020-00614-z.
Neal, Bruce, Y. Wu, X. Feng, et al. “Effect of Salt Substitution on Cardiovascular Events and Death.” New England Journal of Medicine 385, no. 12 (2021): 1067–1077. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2105675.
Bondonno, Catherine P., Kevin D. Croft, and Jonathan M. Hodgson. “Dietary Nitrate, Nitric Oxide, and Cardiovascular Health.” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 56, no. 12 (2016): 2036–2052. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2013.811212
Martinez Steele et al., “Ultra-Processed Foods and Added Sugars in the US Diet: Evidence from a Nationally Representative Cross-Sectional Study,” BMJ Open 6, no. 3 (2016): e009892. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009892.
Zhang, X. et al., “Association of Ultra-Processed Food Intake with Risk of Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies,” American Journal of Hypertension 35, no. 10 (2022): 892–903. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpac044.
Monteiro, C. A., et al., “The UN Decade of Nutrition, the NOVA Food Classification and the Trouble with Ultra-Processing,” World Nutrition 9, no. 2 (2018): 251–284. https://www.worldnutritionjournal.org/index.php/wn/article/view/5/4.
Chassaing, B. et al., “Dietary Emulsifiers Impact the Mouse Gut Microbiota Promoting Colitis and Metabolic Syndrome,” Nature 519, no. 7541 (2015): 92–96. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14232.
Whelan, K. et al., “Ultra-Processed Foods and Food Additives in Gut Health and Disease,” Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology 21, no. 6 (2024): 406–427. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-024-00893-5.
Trugo, N. M. F., and A. G. Torres. “FATS | Requirements.” In Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 2nd ed., edited by Benjamin Caballero, 2279–2284. Amsterdam: Academic Press, 2003. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00444-2.
Yang, H. S. “Lipid Biomarkers and Cardiometabolic Diseases: Critical Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Directions.” Metabolites 15, no. 2 (2025): 108. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo15020108.
Maki, Kevin C., Mary R. Dicklin, and Courtney F. Kirkpatrick. “Saturated Fats and Cardiovascular Health: Current Evidence and Controversies.” Journal of Clinical Lipidology 15, no. 6 (2021): 765–772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacl.2021.09.049.
Sacks, Frank M., et al. “Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory from the American Heart Association.” Circulation 136, no. 3 (2017): e1–e23. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510.
Hu, Y., Frank B. Hu, and JoAnn E. Manson. “Marine Omega-3 Supplementation and Cardiovascular Disease: An Updated Meta-Analysis of 13 Randomized Controlled Trials Involving 127,477 Participants.” Journal of the American Heart Association 8, no. 19 (2019): e013543. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.119.013543.
Hayes, J., and G. Benson. “What the Latest Evidence Tells Us About Fat and Cardiovascular Health.” Diabetes Spectrum 29, no. 3 (2016): 171–175. https://doi.org/10.2337/diaspect.29.3.171.
Li, Yanping, et al. “Saturated Fats Compared with Unsaturated Fats and Sources of Carbohydrates in Relation to Risk of Coronary Heart Disease: A Prospective Cohort Study.” Journal of the American College of Cardiology 66, no. 14 (2015): 1538–1548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2015.07.055.
Mozaffarian, Dariush, A. Aro, and Walter Willett. “Health Effects of Trans-Fatty Acids: Experimental and Observational Evidence.” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63 (Suppl 2) (2009): S5–S21. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602973.
Booker, C. S., and J. I. Mann. “Trans Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Health: Translation of the Evidence Base.” Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases 18, no. 6 (2008): 448–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2008.02.005.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. “Trans Fat.” Last modified April 30, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/trans-fat.
Bowman, Shanthy A., and Joseph C. Clemens. “Saturated Fat and Food Intakes of Adults: What We Eat in America, NHANES 2017–2018.” FSRG Dietary Data Briefs, no. 43. Beltsville, MD: United States Department of Agriculture, 2022. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK588575/.
National Health Service. “How to Eat Less Saturated Fat.” Last modified June 19, 2023. https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/how-to-eat-a-balanced-diet/eat-less-saturated-fat/.
Aranceta, Javier, and Carmen Pérez-Rodrigo. “Recommended Dietary Reference Intakes, Nutritional Goals and Dietary Guidelines for Fat and Fatty Acids: A Systematic Review.” British Journal of Nutrition 107, Suppl. 2 (2012): S8–S22. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114512001444.
American Heart Association. “Fish and Omega-3 Fatty Acids.” Last modified August 23, 2024. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/fats/fish-and-omega-3-fatty-acids.
Calorie Management
Mifflin, M. D., St Jeor, S. T., Hill, L. A., Scott, B. J., Daugherty, S. A., and Y. O. Koh. 1990. “A New Predictive Equation for Resting Energy Expenditure in Healthy Individuals.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, no. 2 (February): 241–47. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/51.2.241.
Hall, Kevin D., and Juen Guo. 2017. “Obesity Energetics: Body Weight Regulation and the Effects of Diet Composition.” Gastroenterology 152, no. 7 (June): 1718–27. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.052.
Reed, George W., and James O. Hill. 1996. “Measuring the Thermic Effect of Food.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63, no. 2 (February): 164–69. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/63.2.164.
Madan, Rajeev, R. T. Varghese, and Ranganath. 2024. “Assessing Insulin Sensitivity and Resistance in Humans.” Updated October 16, 2024. In Endotext, edited by Kenneth R. Feingold, Saleh F. Ahmed, Bryan Anawalt, et al. South Dartmouth, MA: MDText.com, Inc., 2000–. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK278954/.
Jumpertz, Regina, Dao S. Le, Peter J. Turnbaugh, Charles Trinidad, Clifton Bogardus, Jeffrey I. Gordon, and Jonathan Krakoff. 2011. “Energy-Balance Studies Reveal Associations between Gut Microbes, Caloric Load, and Nutrient Absorption in Humans.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 94, no. 1 (July): 58–65. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.110.010132.
Kraus, William E., Manjushri Bhapkar, Kim M. Huffman, Carl F. Pieper, Sai Krupa Das, Leanne M. Redman, Dennis T. Villareal, Jeffrey Rochon, Susan B. Roberts, Eric Ravussin, John O. Holloszy, Luigi Fontana, and CALERIE Investigators. 2019. “2 Years of Calorie Restriction and Cardiometabolic Risk (CALERIE): Exploratory Outcomes of a Multicentre, Phase 2, Randomised Controlled Trial.” The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 7, no. 9 (September): 673–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(19)30151-2.
Sutton, Eric F., Renee Beyl, Kristin S. Early, William T. Cefalu, Eric Ravussin, and Courtney M. Peterson. 2018. “Early Time-Restricted Feeding Improves Insulin Sensitivity, Blood Pressure, and Oxidative Stress Even without Weight Loss in Men with Prediabetes.” Cell Metabolism 27, no. 6 (June): 1212–23.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2018.04.010.
Tahreem, Ayesha, Anum Rakha, Rabia Rabail, Asma Nazir, Cristina T. Socol, Carmen M. Maerescu, and Rana M. Aadil. 2022. “Fad Diets: Facts and Fiction.” Frontiers in Nutrition 9: 960922. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.960922.
World Health Organization. 2020. WHO Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour. Geneva: World Health Organization. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK566046/.
Calorie Management
Mifflin, M. D., St Jeor, S. T., Hill, L. A., Scott, B. J., Daugherty, S. A., and Y. O. Koh. 1990. “A New Predictive Equation for Resting Energy Expenditure in Healthy Individuals.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, no. 2 (February): 241–47. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/51.2.241.
Hall, Kevin D., and Juen Guo. 2017. “Obesity Energetics: Body Weight Regulation and the Effects of Diet Composition.” Gastroenterology 152, no. 7 (June): 1718–27. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.052.
Reed, George W., and James O. Hill. 1996. “Measuring the Thermic Effect of Food.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63, no. 2 (February): 164–69. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/63.2.164.
Madan, Rajeev, R. T. Varghese, and Ranganath. 2024. “Assessing Insulin Sensitivity and Resistance in Humans.” Updated October 16, 2024. In Endotext, edited by Kenneth R. Feingold, Saleh F. Ahmed, Bryan Anawalt, et al. South Dartmouth, MA: MDText.com, Inc., 2000–. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK278954/.
Jumpertz, Regina, Dao S. Le, Peter J. Turnbaugh, Charles Trinidad, Clifton Bogardus, Jeffrey I. Gordon, and Jonathan Krakoff. 2011. “Energy-Balance Studies Reveal Associations between Gut Microbes, Caloric Load, and Nutrient Absorption in Humans.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 94, no. 1 (July): 58–65. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.110.010132.
Kraus, William E., Manjushri Bhapkar, Kim M. Huffman, Carl F. Pieper, Sai Krupa Das, Leanne M. Redman, Dennis T. Villareal, Jeffrey Rochon, Susan B. Roberts, Eric Ravussin, John O. Holloszy, Luigi Fontana, and CALERIE Investigators. 2019. “2 Years of Calorie Restriction and Cardiometabolic Risk (CALERIE): Exploratory Outcomes of a Multicentre, Phase 2, Randomised Controlled Trial.” The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 7, no. 9 (September): 673–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(19)30151-2.
Sutton, Eric F., Renee Beyl, Kristin S. Early, William T. Cefalu, Eric Ravussin, and Courtney M. Peterson. 2018. “Early Time-Restricted Feeding Improves Insulin Sensitivity, Blood Pressure, and Oxidative Stress Even without Weight Loss in Men with Prediabetes.” Cell Metabolism 27, no. 6 (June): 1212–23.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2018.04.010.
Tahreem, Ayesha, Anum Rakha, Rabia Rabail, Asma Nazir, Cristina T. Socol, Carmen M. Maerescu, and Rana M. Aadil. 2022. “Fad Diets: Facts and Fiction.” Frontiers in Nutrition 9: 960922. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.960922.
World Health Organization. 2020. WHO Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour. Geneva: World Health Organization. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK566046/.
Metabolism
American Heart Association. “What Is Metabolic Syndrome?” Heart.org, last reviewed October 17, 2023. https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/metabolic-syndrome/about-metabolic-syndrome.
NHS. “Metabolic Syndrome.” NHS.uk, reviewed November 16, 2023. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/metabolic-syndrome/.
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. “Only 12 Percent of American Adults Are Metabolically Healthy, Study Finds.” UNC News, November 28, 2018. https://sph.unc.edu/sph-news/only-12-percent-of-american-adults-are-metabolically-healthy-study-finds/.
Rizvi, Ali A., and Manfredi Rizzo. “Age-Related Changes in Insulin Resistance and Muscle Mass: Clinical Implications in Obese Older Adults.” Medicina 60, no. 10 (2024): 1648. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina6010002.
NHS Inform Scotland. “After the Menopause – Weight Gain.” NHS, 2021. https://www.nhsinform.scot/healthy-living/preventing-weight-gain-after-menopause.
Swarup, Shweta, et al. “Metabolic Syndrome.” StatPearls. NCBI Bookshelf, updated March 7, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470464/.
Barclay, Alan W., et al. "Glycemic index, glycemic load, and chronic disease risk—a meta-analysis of observational studies." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 87, no. 3 (2008): 627–637.
Livesey, Geoffrey, et al. "Low-glycemic diets and health: a review of the evidence." Nutrition Research Reviews 21, no. 2 (2008): 145–171.
Ludwig, David S., and Cara B. Ebbeling. "The carbohydrate–insulin model of obesity: beyond 'calories in, calories out'." JAMA Internal Medicine 178, no. 8 (2018): 1098–1103.
Bray, George A., and Barry M. Popkin. "Dietary sugar and body weight: have we reached a crisis in the epidemic of obesity and diabetes?" Health Affairs 33, no. 3 (2014): 404–411.
Ma, Yuexin, et al. "Associations of refined grain and whole grain intake with metabolic syndrome." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 110, no. 3 (2010): 456–464.
Teff, Karen L., et al. "Dietary fructose reduces circulating insulin and leptin, attenuates postprandial suppression of ghrelin, and increases triglycerides in women." Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 89, no. 6 (2004): 2963–2972.
Stanhope, Kimber L., and Peter J. Havel. "Fructose consumption: recent results and their potential implications." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1190, no. 1 (2010): 15–24.
Malik, Vasanti S., and Frank B. Hu. “Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Cardiometabolic Health.” Journal of the American College of Cardiology 72, no. 1 (2018): 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2018.03.019.
Mäkinen, T., et al. “Strength Training Improves Metabolic Health Markers in Older Individuals.” Frontiers in Physiology 10 (2019): 32. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00032.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “How Much Physical Activity Do Adults Need?” CDC.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/adults/index.htm.
Moon, Shinje, and Jiseung Kang. “Effects of Sarcopenic Obesity on Metabolic Health.” Current Obesity Reports10, no. 1 (2021): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-020-00415-y.
Davis, Susan R., and Rod Baber. “Managing Menopause in the Era of Personalized Medicine.” Nature Reviews Endocrinology 16 (2020): 467–481. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-020-0370-z.
Aguilar, Martin, et al. “Prevalence of the Metabolic Syndrome in the United States, 2003–2012.” JAMA 313, no. 19 (2015): 1973–1974. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.4260.
Eating Habits
Palomar-Cros, A., Gitsels, L. A., Jovic, D., Potier, M., Andreeva, V. A., De Saboulin Bollenaere, H., ... & Touvier, M. (2023). Dietary circadian rhythms and cardiovascular disease risk in the prospective NutriNet-Santé cohort. Nature Communications, 14, 7899. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-43765-3
Hood, S., & Amir, S. (2017). The aging clock: circadian rhythms and later life. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 127(2), 437–446. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI87406
St-Onge, M. P., Ard, J., Baskin, M. L., Chiuve, S. E., Johnson, H. M., Kris-Etherton, P., & Varady, K. (2017). Meal timing and frequency: Implications for cardiovascular disease prevention: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 135(9), e96–e121. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000476
Wang, W., Zhao, J., Su, J., Tian, Z., Zhang, Q., & Zhao, Y. (2022). Beneficial effect of time-restricted eating on blood pressure: A systematic meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis. Nutrition & Metabolism, 19, 77. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12986-022-00697-7
Pellegrini, Michele, Iolanda Cioffi, Alessandra Evangelista, et al. “Effects of Time-Restricted Feeding on Body Weight and Metabolism: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders 21, no. 1 (2020): 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-019-09524-w.
Moon, Shinje, Jiseung Kang, Sang Hyun Kim, Hye Soo Chung, Yoon Jung Kim, Jae Myung Yu, Sung Tae Cho, Chang-Myung Oh, and Tae Kim. “Beneficial Effects of Time-Restricted Eating on Metabolic Diseases: A Systemic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Nutrients 12, no. 5 (2020): 1267. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051267.
Kamarul Zaman, Mohd, Nor Idayu Mahani Fazil Teng, Siti Safiah Kasim, Nur Juliana, and Mazen A. Alshawsh. “Effects of Time-Restricted Eating with Different Eating Duration on Anthropometrics and Cardiometabolic Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” World Journal of Cardiology 15, no. 7 (2023): 354–374. https://doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v15.i7.354.
Liu, Lili, Wei Chen, Dan Wu, and Fang Hu. “Metabolic Efficacy of Time-Restricted Eating in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.” The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 107, no. 12 (December 2022): 3428–3441. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgac570.
Cameron, J. D., Cyr, M. J., & Doucet, É. (2010). Increased meal frequency does not promote greater weight loss in subjects who were prescribed an 8-week equi-energetic energy-restricted diet. Obesity, 18(9), 1736–1741. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2009.460
Ohkawara, K., Cornier, M. A., Kohrt, W. M., & Melanson, E. L. (2008). Effects of meal frequency on body composition during weight reduction in overweight men and women. British Journal of Nutrition, 100(2), 414–417. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114508894380
Stote, K. S., Baer, D. J., Spears, K., Paul, D. R., Harris, G. K., Rumpler, W. V., & Clevidence, B. A. (2007). A controlled trial of reduced meal frequency without caloric restriction in healthy, normal-weight middle-aged adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 85(4), 981–988. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.4.981
Uzhova, I., et al. (2017). The importance of breakfast in atherosclerosis disease. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 70(15), 1833–1842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2017.08.027
Jakubowicz, D., Wainstein, J., Ahren, B., Bar-Dayan, Y., Landau, Z., Rabinovitz, H. R., & Froy, O. (2015). High-energy breakfast with reduced dinner improves 24-hour blood glucose control in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetologia, 58(5), 912–919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-015-3524-9
Pérez-Vega, K., et al. (2024). Breakfast energy intake and dietary quality and trajectories of cardiometabolic risk factors in older adults. The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-024-2001-y
Lopez-Minguez, J., Gómez-Abellán, P., & Garaulet, M. (2019). Timing of breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Effects on obesity and metabolic risk. Nutrients, 11(10), 2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11102624
Pandey, A., Li, Y., Zhang, Z., & Pan, A. (2019). Association of breakfast skipping with incident cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohorts. Circulation, 139(4), 454–465.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. How to Understand and Use the Nutrition Facts Label. Silver Spring, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Accessed July 23, 2025. https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/how-understand-and-use-nutrition-facts-label.
Leidy, H. J., Armstrong, C. L., Tang, M., Mattes, R. D., & Campbell, W. W. (2011). The influence of higher protein intake and greater eating frequency on appetite control in overweight and obese men. Obesity, 19(4), 818–824. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2010.203
Paddon-Jones, D., Campbell, W. W., Jacques, P. F., Kritchevsky, S. B., Moore, L. L., Rodriguez, N. R., & Van Horn, L. (2015). Protein and healthy aging. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 101(6), 1339S–1345S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.084061
Kondo, Y., Yoshida, M., Yokoe, Y., & Yamaguchi, Y. (2017). Eating vegetables before carbohydrates improves postprandial glucose levels. BMC Nutrition, 3(1), 91. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40795-017-0201-7
French, Sean, Liu Mei, and Amanda S. Grant. “Reevaluating Protein Intake: Risks at the Upper Threshold.” Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry and Aging 12, no. 1 (2025): 45–53.
Morgan, Paul T., Oliver C. Witard, Grith Højfeldt, David D. Church, and Leigh Breen. “Dietary Protein Recommendations to Support Healthy Muscle Ageing in the 21st Century and Beyond: Considerations and Future Directions.” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society (2023). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665123003750.
Nishimura, Yusuke, Grith Højfeldt, Leigh Breen, Inge Tetens, and Lars Holm. “Dietary Protein Requirements and Recommendations for Healthy Older Adults: A Critical Narrative Review of the Scientific Evidence.” Nutrition Research Reviews 36 (2023): 69–85. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422421000329.
Exercise & Physical Activity
Nystoriak, Matthew A., and Aruni Bhatnagar. “Cardiovascular Effects and Benefits of Exercise.” Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine 5 (2018): 135. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2018.00135.
Xue, Qi, Jiayi Wu, Yuting Ren, Jing Hu, Kaiyang Yang, and Jun Cao. “Sarcopenia Predicts Adverse Outcomes in an Elderly Population with Coronary Artery Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” BMC Geriatrics 21, no. 1 (2021): 493. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02438-w.
Fecchio, Renata Y., João C. S. de Sousa, Luiz Oliveira-Silva, et al. “Effects of Dynamic, Isometric and Combined Resistance Training on Blood Pressure and Its Mechanisms in Hypertensive Men.” Hypertension Research 46 (2023): 1031–1043. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41440-023-01202-4.
Liu, Yu, Duck-chul Lee, Yanping Li, Wei Zhu, Rui Zhang, Xuemei Sui, Carl J. Lavie, and Steven N. Blair. “Associations of Resistance Exercise with Cardiovascular Disease Morbidity and Mortality.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 51, no. 3 (2019): 499–508. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001822.
American College of Sports Medicine. “American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand: Progression Models in Resistance Training for Healthy Adults.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 41, no. 3 (2009): 687–708. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181915670.
Buchheit, Martin, and Paul B. Laursen. “High-Intensity Interval Training, Solutions to the Programming Puzzle: Part I: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis.” Sports Medicine 43, no. 5 (2013): 313–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-013-0029-x.
Costache, Alexandru D., Andrei Maștaleru, Mihaela M. Leon, et al. “High-Intensity Interval Training vs. Medium-Intensity Continuous Training in Cardiac Rehabilitation Programs: A Narrative Review.” Medicina 60, no. 11 (2024): 1875. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60111875.
Hughes, David C., Sveinung Ellefsen, and Keith Baar. “Adaptations to Endurance and Strength Training.” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 8, no. 6 (2018): a029769. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a029769.
Mrówczyński, Wojciech. “Health Benefits of Endurance Training: Implications of the Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor—A Systematic Review.” Neural Plasticity 2019 (2019): 5413067. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5413067.
World Health Organization. WHO Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2020. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK566046/.
Park, Jun H., Ji H. Moon, Hyun J. Kim, Mi H. Kong, and Yong H. Oh. “Sedentary Lifestyle: Overview of Updated Evidence of Potential Health Risks.” Korean Journal of Family Medicine 41, no. 6 (2020): 365–373. https://doi.org/10.4082/kjfm.20.0165.
Exercise & Physical Activity
Nystoriak, Matthew A., and Aruni Bhatnagar. “Cardiovascular Effects and Benefits of Exercise.” Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine 5 (2018): 135. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2018.00135.
Xue, Qi, Jiayi Wu, Yuting Ren, Jing Hu, Kaiyang Yang, and Jun Cao. “Sarcopenia Predicts Adverse Outcomes in an Elderly Population with Coronary Artery Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” BMC Geriatrics 21, no. 1 (2021): 493. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02438-w.
Fecchio, Renata Y., João C. S. de Sousa, Luiz Oliveira-Silva, et al. “Effects of Dynamic, Isometric and Combined Resistance Training on Blood Pressure and Its Mechanisms in Hypertensive Men.” Hypertension Research 46 (2023): 1031–1043. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41440-023-01202-4.
Liu, Yu, Duck-chul Lee, Yanping Li, Wei Zhu, Rui Zhang, Xuemei Sui, Carl J. Lavie, and Steven N. Blair. “Associations of Resistance Exercise with Cardiovascular Disease Morbidity and Mortality.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 51, no. 3 (2019): 499–508. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001822.
American College of Sports Medicine. “American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand: Progression Models in Resistance Training for Healthy Adults.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 41, no. 3 (2009): 687–708. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181915670.
Buchheit, Martin, and Paul B. Laursen. “High-Intensity Interval Training, Solutions to the Programming Puzzle: Part I: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis.” Sports Medicine 43, no. 5 (2013): 313–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-013-0029-x.
Costache, Alexandru D., Andrei Maștaleru, Mihaela M. Leon, et al. “High-Intensity Interval Training vs. Medium-Intensity Continuous Training in Cardiac Rehabilitation Programs: A Narrative Review.” Medicina 60, no. 11 (2024): 1875. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60111875.
Hughes, David C., Sveinung Ellefsen, and Keith Baar. “Adaptations to Endurance and Strength Training.” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 8, no. 6 (2018): a029769. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a029769.
Mrówczyński, Wojciech. “Health Benefits of Endurance Training: Implications of the Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor—A Systematic Review.” Neural Plasticity 2019 (2019): 5413067. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5413067.
World Health Organization. WHO Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2020. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK566046/.
Park, Jun H., Ji H. Moon, Hyun J. Kim, Mi H. Kong, and Yong H. Oh. “Sedentary Lifestyle: Overview of Updated Evidence of Potential Health Risks.” Korean Journal of Family Medicine 41, no. 6 (2020): 365–373. https://doi.org/10.4082/kjfm.20.0165.
Emotional Health
Evbayekha, E. O., et al. “Sleep Deprivation Is Associated With Increased Risk for Hypertensive Heart Disease: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study.” Cureus 14, no. 12 (2022): e33005. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.33005.
Satyjeet, F., et al. “Psychological Stress as a Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease: A Case-Control Study.” Cureus 12, no. 10 (2020): e10757. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.10757.
Eguchi, Kazuomi, et al. “Nocturnal Nondipping of Heart Rate Predicts Cardiovascular Events in Hypertensive Patients.” Journal of Hypertension 27, no. 11 (2009): 2265–2270. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e328330a938.
Nollet, Maxime, William Wisden, and Nicholas P. Franks. “Sleep Deprivation and Stress: A Reciprocal Relationship.” Interface Focus 10, no. 3 (2020): 20190092. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsfs.2019.0092.
Nagai, Michiaki, Satoshi Hoshide, and Kazuomi Kario. “Sleep Duration as a Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease: A Review of the Recent Literature.” Current Cardiology Reviews 6, no. 1 (2010): 54–61. https://doi.org/10.2174/157340310790231635.
Sajjadieh, Ali, et al. “The Association of Sleep Duration and Quality with Heart Rate Variability and Blood Pressure.” Tanaffos 19, no. 2 (2020): 135–143.
Chu, Brandon, et al. “Physiology, Stress Reaction.” Updated May 7, 2024. In StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, 2025–. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541120/.
Blaha, Michael J., and Andrew P. DeFilippis. “Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA): JACC Focus Seminar 5/8.” Journal of the American College of Cardiology 77, no. 25 (2021): 3195–3216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2021.05.006.
Ayada, C., Ü. Toru, and Y. Korkut. “The Relationship of Stress and Blood Pressure Effectors.” Hippokratia 19, no. 2 (2015): 99–108.
Valenza, Gaetano, Zrinka Matić, and Vittorio Catrambone. “The Brain–Heart Axis: Integrative Cooperation of Neural, Mechanical and Biochemical Pathways.” Nature Reviews Cardiology 22 (2025): 537–550. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41569-025-01140-3.
Ahmad, Syed A., Nadeem Khalid, and Mohd A. Ibrahim. “Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy.” Updated May 22, 2023. In StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, 2025–. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430798/.
Lee, Ernest K. P., et al. “Effect and Acceptability of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program on Patients With Elevated Blood Pressure or Hypertension: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.” Hypertension 76, no. 6 (2020): 1992–2001. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.16160.
Alhawatmeh, Hani N., et al. “The Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation on Trait Mindfulness, Perceived Stress, Cortisol, and C-Reactive Protein in Nursing Students: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” Advances in Medical Education and Practice 13 (2022): 47–58. https://doi.org/10.2147/AMEP.S348062.
